The following attributes are encountered in the vast majority of WebApps.

Network intensiveness. A WebApp resides on a network and must serve the needs of a diverse community of clients. The network may enable worldwide access and communication (i.e., the Internet) or more limited access and communication (e.g., a corporate Intranet).

Concurrency. A large number of users may access the WebApp at one
time. In many cases, the patterns of usage among end users will vary greatly.
Unpredictable load. The number of users of the WebApp may vary by
orders of magnitude from day to day. One hundred users may show up on
Monday; 10,000 may use the system on Thursday.

Performance.  If a web app user must wait too long (for access, for server-side processing, for client-side formatting and display), he or she may decide to go elsewhere.

Availability. Although expectation of 100 percent availability is unreasonable, users of popular WebApps often demand access on a 24/7/365 basis. Users in Australia or Asia might demand access during times when traditional domestic software applications in North America might be taken off-line for maintenance.

Data-driven. The primary function of many WebApps is to use hypermedia to present text, graphics, audio, and video content to the end user. In addition, WebApps are commonly used to access information that exists on databases that are not an integral part of the Web-based environment (e.g., e-commerce or financial applications).

Content sensitive. The quality and aesthetic nature of content remain an important determinant of the quality of a WebApp.

Continuous evolution. Unlike conventional application software that evolves over a series of planned, chronologically spaced releases, Web applications evolve continuously. It is not unusual for some WebApps (specifically, their content) to be updated on a minute-by-minute schedule or for content to be independently computed for each request.

Immediacy. Although immediacy—the compelling need to get the software to market quickly—is a characteristic of many application domains, WebApps often exhibit a time-to-market that can be a matter of a few days or weeks.

Security. Because web apps are available via network access, it is difficult, if not impossible, to limit the population of end users who may access the application. In order to protect sensitive content and provide secure modes

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MEANING OF DECISION MAKING

According to G.R. Terry,” Decision making is the selection based on some criteria from two or more possible alternatives”.

Decision making is the process of selecting a best course of action out of many available alternatives. A manager in an organization has to make different decisions in setting goals, determining plans and taking actions, formulating strategies and policies, assigning jobs to subordinates, etc. decision making is the process of solving organizational problems by choosing a specific course of action.

FEATURES:

1.       Selective process

2.       Rational process

3.       Dynamic process

4.       Goal oriented

5.       Continuous process

6.       Impact of decision i.e. negative or positive.

TYPES OF DECISION MAKING

1.       Programmed and Non-programmed decision making

Programmed decisions are structured and routine. They are simple and easy to understand. Such decisions are made in accordance with policy, rules and procedures which are already established. They don’t have to be handled each time they occur. These decisions are generally repetitive routine and are usually the easiest for managers to make. Such decisions are often made by middle level and lower level managers. E.g. requisition of material, placing purchase order, pay role procedure, loan policy of bank, providing leave to employees, etc.

Non programmed decisions are unstructured and non-repetitive. These decisions are usually concerned with complex problems which are new and are different from previous ones. Therefore, these decisions need creativity in problem solving. Managers need to use their judgmental ability to make such decisions. As there is no standard operating procedure, top level managers deal with such decisions. E.g. introducing a new product, making a capital expenditure decision, computerization in the organization, dropping an existing product, new investment in certain field, etc.

2.       Strategic, Tactical & Operational decisions

Strategic decisions are related to organization policies, goals and environment of the organization. They deal with unstructured and non-repetitive problems. Such decisions are made by top level management.

Tactical decisions are made to implement the strategic decisions. Such decisions are of short-term nature and are related to a particular department. These decisions are made  by middle level managers.

Operational decisions are routine and repetitive. They are related to the jobs to be done and are made by lower level managers.

3.       Individual and Group decision making

The types of decision which are made by an individual are called individual decisions. Generally, such decisions are made in small firms where the owner himself is the controller and the manager of the business. Such decisions are generally simple but sometimes may also be complex.

Group decision is a type of decision which is collectively made in a group. Generally, such decision is taken by Board of Directors, committees, taskforce, by the team, etc.

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MEANING OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is inducement for better performance toward goal achievement. It is the act of stimulating or energizing employees for higher performance. It is willingness to exert high level of effort to satisfy individual needs. It is an inner state that energizes, directs and sustains behavior toward goal achievement.

Motivation can be extrinsic which is externally induced. It can be intrinsic which is self-generated. Financial incentive for a job well done is extrinsic. Sense of satisfaction for a job well done is intrinsic.

According to Ricky Griffin,” Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION

1.       Psychological process:

 Motivation is concerned with individual needs, motives and drives. It is a psychological process. It is an internal state that guides behavior.

2.       Complex and unpredictable: Motivation is complex. It is difficult to predict due to individual differences.

3.       Concerned with whole individual: 
Motivation is concerned with individual. The total individual is motivated, not the parts of individual.

4.       Continuous process: Motivation is a continuous process. Individuals have many needs. When one need is satisfied, another emerges.

5.       Situational: Motivation is situational. It differs from person to person and time to time. It can be expressed differently.

6.       Pervasive: Motivation is the task of all levels of managers. All managers need to motivate subordinates for higher productivity.

7.       Goal oriented: Motivation leads to action. It involves efforts to achieve goals.

8.       Positive or Negative: Motivation can be positive or negative. Positive motivation is based on incentives and reward for better performance. Negative motivation is based on punishment for poor performance.

9.       Intrinsic or Extrinsic: Motivation is intrinsic if self-generated. It is extrinsic if generated by external incentives such as money.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

There are two important theories of motivation and they are:

1.       Hierarchy of Needs theory

2.       Motivation-Hygiene theory

1.       Theory of Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)

Maslow advocated hierarchy of needs theory. It states that needs motivate individuals. Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. A person progresses step-by-step up the need hierarchy. Most pressing needs are satisfied first.

The basic premises of Maslow’s theory are:

a)      Man is a wanting being: Man continuously wants more and more. No need is ever fully satisfied. When one need is satisfied, another emerges. Needs activate individuals to work. They influence behavior. They motivate for greater efforts.

b)      Satisfied needs do not motivate: This is the deficit principle of motivation. A satisfied need does not motivate.

c)       Needs have a hierarchy: Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. Needs are satisfied in an order.

This is the progressive principle of motivation. People have a set of five needs. They are:

·         Physiological needs

·         Safety needs

·         Social needs

·         Esteem needs

·         Self-actualization needs.

Physiological and safety needs are lower order needs. They are most pressing. Social, esteem and self-actualization needs are higher order needs. They are least pressing.

IMPLICATIONS OF MASLOW’S THEORY FOR MANAGERS

a)      Motivation is need-based. Satisfaction of needs motivates people. All employees have needs.

b)      Satisfied needs do not motivate. Only unsatisfied needs make people willing to work. The degree of need satisfaction is not rigid. It varies from person to person.

c)       Managers should endeavour to satisfy the unsatisfied needs of employees for motivation purposes.

d)      Higher order needs provide higher motivation.

EVALUATION OF MASLOW’S THEORY

a)      Research has failed to verify the hierarchical arrangement of needs.

b)      People are motivated not only by needs but also by perception, expectation and experience.

c)       Multiplicity of needs rather than a single need may motivate people.

d)      Situational factors have been neglected. This theory does not provide a complete basis for dealing with motivation.

2.       Motivation-Hygiene theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Herzberg advocated Motivation-Hygiene theory of motivation. It states that not all job factors motivate employees. As individual’s attitude toward job determines satisfaction. Job satisfaction has two different dimensions. They are:

a)      Hygiene factors: They are extrinsic factors. They are related to job context. The absence of these factors maintains job satisfaction. These factors do not motivate. The factors are:

i)                    Company policy and administration

ii)                   Technical supervision

iii)                 Interpersonal relations

iv)                 Salary

v)                  Job security

vi)                 Personal life

vii)               Work conditions

viii)              Status

b)      Motivating factors: They are intrinsic factors. They are related to job content. The presence of these factors cause job satisfaction. But the absence of these factors does not lead to job dissatisfaction. These factors motivate. The factors are:

i)                    Achievement

ii)                   Recognition

iii)                 Work itself

iv)                 Responsibility

v)                  Advancement

vi)                 Growth

IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY

a)      The traditional view regarded that the opposite of satisfaction was dissatisfaction. Herzberg concluded that this view was incomplete.

The motivation-hygiene theory introduced the concept of two continuums. Motivating factors had a continuum ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction. Hygiene factors had continuum ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

b)      Job content is important for motivation. Job enrichment should be used for motivation. Jobs should be made interesting and challenging.

c)       Managers should have a two-step approach to motivation:

i)                    Ensure that hygiene factors that cause dissatisfaction are eliminated. Pay and security must be appropriate. Working conditions must be safe.

ii)                   Give employee opportunities to experience motivating factors, such as achievement and recognition. Job enrichment technique should be used for motivation.

EVALUATION OF MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY

Strengths (pros):

a)      This theory is popular and well known.

b)      It increased awareness about importance of motivation in the work place.

c)       It increased enthusiasm for job enrichment as a technique for motivation.

Weakness(cons):

a)      The research methodology of the theory has been subject of criticism. Subsequent research has not validated the theory.

b)      Herzberg’s findings are subject to different explanations.

c)       Hygiene and motivating factors are not wholly unidirectional.

d)      Situational factors are ignored by this theory.

e)      The theory provides explanations only about job satisfaction.

COMPARISON OF MASLOW’S AND HERZBERG’S THEORIES

Both theories are based on needs. Maslow describes needs. Herzberg describes factors that make a person satisfied or dissatisfied with his job. Herzberg’s factors fit with Maslow’s needs.

a)      Maslow has need hierarchy. Higher order needs become operational after the satisfaction of lower order needs. Herzberg thinks all needs are operational at all times. There is no hierarchy of needs.

b)      Maslow thinks unsatisfied needs motivate. Herzberg thinks that only the higher order needs (esteem, self-actualization) motivate.

c)       Maslow’s theory is descriptive. Herzberg’s theory is prescriptive.

d)      Maslow’s theory is a macro view of relevant to all workers. Herzberg’s theory is a micro view relevant to work related motivation of professional workers.

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Meaning of Centralization

Centralization means the authority is centralized at the top level of management. Decisions are made by the higher level managers. It is opposite of decentralization. Top managers make all the decisions. Subordinates simply carry them out.

According to Ricky Griffin,” Centralization is the process of systematically retaining power and authority in the hands of higher level managers”.

ADVANTAGES OF CENTRALIZATION

1.       Specialization management: The higher the specialization of jobs, the greater the need for centralization. Tall hierarchical organizations with functional departments are best managed through centralization.

2.       Complexity management: Specialization of jobs creates complexity. Narrow spans of management also create complexity. Centralization provides advantage to manage complexity. Uniform policies and practices are fostered. Specialists can be used.

3.       Significant decision making: Non-programmed significant decisions require centralized decision making by top management. Decentralization is not suitable for making such decisions. Moreover, management philosophy may also favor centralization in such decision.

4.       Environmental stability: Centralization is the most suitable model for making decisions in stable environment.

5.       Improved capacity at lower levels: Subordinates may lack capacity or be unwilling and inexperienced to exercise decentralized authority. Such situations give advantage to centralization.

6.       Crisis management: When organizations face crisis or risk of failure, centralized decision making by top management has advantage.

7.       Cost effective: High cost of decentralization makes centralization advantageous. Duplication of efforts is minimized.

Disadvantages of Centralization

1.       poor environmental adaptation: Organizational environment tends to be dynamic, complex and uncertain. Centralization cannot quickly adapt to the changing environment.

2.       Poor diversification management: Modern organizations tend to be highly diversified. They are also geographically dispersed. Centralization is not suitable to manage diversified and dispersed organizations.

3.       Unsuitable for programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are routine-type decisions. They are relatively minor decisions. Such decisions are not suitable for centralization. They burden top managers.

4.       Poor management development: Centralization blocks the management development of subordinates. Their skills and talents remain unutilized because of lack of participation and involvement in decision making.

5.       Delayed decisions: Centralization creates multiple layers for decision making purposes. The files move through the hierarchy from subordinates to bosses. This delays decision making.

MEANING OF DECENTRALIZATION

decentralization is the result of delegation of authority. It is devolution of decision making authority downward.

According to Koontz and Weihrich,” Decentralization is the tendency to disperse decision-making authority in an organized structure”.

ADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALIZATION

1.       Quicker and better decisions: it disperses decision making authority close to unit managers who execute decisions. It reduces problems of communication and red tape. This leads to quicker and better decision making

2.       Diversification: decentralization facilitates diversification of products, activities and markets. Profit centers can be established with independence in decision making.

3.       Competitive organizational climate: Decentralization promotes competitive climate for improving performance among divisions and profit centers.

4.       Management development: decentralization encourages managers to exercise freedom and independence in decision making. They learn to make decisions and exercise judgment. This develops managerial competency.

5.       Environmental adaptation: Decentralization helps organizations to adapt to fast-changing environment.

6.       Relieves burden of top management: Top managers are relieved from making routine decisions. They can concentrate on important issues of strategic relevance.

7.       Higher motivation and morale: Decentralization provides power, prestige and status to subordinates. This increases motivation and morale of subordinates.

DISADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALIZATION

1.       Problem of coordination and control: Decentralization provides freedom and independence in decision making. This can lead to inconsistencies in policies, programs and procedures. This can create the problem of poor coordination and control.

2.       High cost: Decentralization can result in duplication of efforts and waste of resources. Human resources need to be trained. This results in increased costs. It is also time consuming.

3.       Unsuitable for specialized services: Decentralization is not suitable in tackling emergency situations. Adjustment to fast changing situation may be difficult.

4.       Handicap in emergency: Decentralization can become a handicap in tackling emergency situations. Adjustment to fast changing situation may be difficult.

5.       Lack of managerial capacity: Decentralization requires competent and skilled subordinates. It may be difficult to find them.

6.       Managerial desires and fears.

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